Scandinavian Journal of Pain
Volume 1 , Pages S3-S11 , May 2009

Neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury pain: mechanisms and treatment

  • Nanna Brix Finnerup

      Affiliations

    • Danish Pain Research Center, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Nanna Brix Finnerup, MD, DMSci. Associate Research Professor, Danish Pain Research Center, University of Aarhus, Aarhus University Hospital, Building 1A, Noerrebrogade 44, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark. Tel.: +45 8949 3455; fax: +45 8949 3269
    • ,
  • Cathrine Baastrup

      Affiliations

    • Danish Pain Research Center, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
    • ,
  • Troels Staehelin Jensen

      Affiliations

    • Danish Pain Research Center, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
    • Department of Neurology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

References 

  1. Andersen OK , Finnerup NB , Spaich EG , Jensen TS , Arendt-Nielsen L . Expansion of nociceptive withdrawal reflex receptive fields in spinal cord injured humans . Clin Neurophysiol . 2004;115:2798–2810
  2. Andre-Obadia N , Peyron R , Mertens P , Mauguiere F , Laurent B , Garcia-Larrea L . Transcranial magnetic stimulation for pain control. Double-blind study of different frequencies against placebo, and correlation with motor cortex stimulation efficacy . Clin Neurophysiol . 2006;117:1536–1544
  3. Attal N , Gaude V , Brasseur L , Dupuy M , Guirimand F , Parker F , et al.   Intravenous lidocaine in central pain: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, psychophysical study . Neurology . 2000;54:564–574
  4. Attal N , Cruccu G , Haanpaa M , Hansson P , Jensen TS , Nurmikko T , et al.   EFNS guidelines on pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain . Eur J Neurol . 2006;13:1153–1169
  5. Attal N , Fermanian C , Fermanian J , Lanteri-Minet M , Alchaar H , Bouhassira D . Neuropathic pain: are there distinct subtypes depending on the aetiology or anatomical lesion? . Pain . 2008;138:343–353
  6. Baastrup C , Finnerup NB . Pharmacological management of neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury . CNS Drugs . 2008;22:455–475
  7. Bennett AD , Everhart AW , Hulsebosch CE . Intrathecal administration of an NMDA or a non-NMDA receptor antagonist reduces mechanical but not thermal allodynia in a rodent model of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury . Brain Res . 2000;859:72–82
  8. Biering-Sorensen F , Pedersen V , Clausen S . Epidemiology of spinal cord lesions in Denmark . Paraplegia . 1990;28:105–118
  9. Boord P , Siddall PJ , Tran Y , Herbert D , Middleton J , Craig A . Electroencephalographic slowing and reduced reactivity in neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury . Spinal Cord . 2007;46:118–123
  10. Bouhassira D , Attal N , Fermanian J , Alchaar H , Gautron M , Masquelier E , et al.   Development and validation of the Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory . Pain . 2004;108:248–257
  11. Bryce TN , Budh CN , Cardenas D , Dijkers M , Felix ER , Finnerup NB , et al.   Outcome Measures for Pain after Spinal Cord Injury: an Evaluation of Reliability and Validity . J Spinal Cord Med . 2007;30:421–440
  12. Budh CN , Osteraker AL . Life satisfaction in individuals with a spinal cord injury and pain . Clin Rehabil . 2007;21:89–96
  13. Budh CN , Lund I , Ertzgaard P , Holtz A , Hultling C , Levi R , et al.   Pain in a Swedish spinal cord injury population . Clin Rehabil . 2003;17:685–690
  14. Callahan BL , Gil AS , Levesque A , Mogil JS . Modulation of mechanical and thermal nociceptive sensitivity in the laboratory mouse by behavioral state . J Pain . 2008;9:174–184
  15. Canavero S , Bonicalzi V . Intravenous subhypnotic propofol in central pain: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study . Clin Neuropharmacol . 2004;27:182–186
  16. Cardenas DD , Warms CA , Turner JA , Marshall H , Brooke MM , Loeser JD . Efficacy of amitriptyline for relief of pain in spinal cord injury: results of a randomized controlled trial . Pain . 2002;96:365–373
  17. Chiou-Tan FY , Tuel SM , Johnson JC , Priebe MM , Hirsh DD , Strayer JR . Effect of mexiletine on spinal cord injury dysesthetic pain . Am J Phys Med Rehabil . 1996;75:84–87
  18. Christensen MD , Hulsebosch CE . Spinal cord injury and anti-NGF treatment results in changes in CGRP density and distribution in the dorsal horn in the rat . Exp Neurol . 1997;147:463–475
  19. Christensen MD , Everhart AW , Pickelman JT , Hulsebosch CE . Mechanical and thermal allodynia in chronic central pain following spinal cord injury . Pain . 1996;68:97–107
  20. Council of Europe  . Towards concerted efforts for treating and curing spinal cord injury . Available at: http://assembly.coe.int/document/workingdocs/doc02/edoc9401.thm 2003; Web reference.
  21. Cruccu G , Aziz TZ , Garcia-Larrea L , Hansson P , Jensen TS , Lefaucheur JP , et al.   EFNS guidelines on neurostimulation therapy for neuropathic pain . Eur J Neurol . 2007;14:952–970
  22. Cummins TR , Sheets PL , Waxman SG . The roles of sodium channels in nociception: Implications for mechanisms of pain . Pain . 2007;131:243–257
  23. Davidoff G , Guarracini M , Roth E , Sliwa J , Yarkony G . Trazodone hydrochloride in the treatment of dysesthetic pain in traumatic myelopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study . Pain . 1987;29:151–161
  24. Defrin R , Ohry A , Blumen N , Urca G . Acute pain threshold in subjects with chronic pain following spinal cord injury . Pain . 1999;83:275–282
  25. Dostrovsky JO . Role of thalamus in pain . Prog Brain Res . 2000;129:245–257
  26. Drew GM , Siddall PJ , Duggan AW . Responses of spinal neurones to cutaneous and dorsal root stimuli in rats with mechanical allodynia after contusive spinal cord injury . Brain Res . 2001;893:59–69
  27. Drewes AM , Andreasen A , Poulsen LH . Valproate for treatment of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury. A double-blind crossover study . Paraplegia . 1994;32:565–569
  28. Druckman R , Lende R . Central pain of spinal cord origin. Pathogenesis and surgical relief in one patient . Neurology . 1965;15:518–522
  29. Dworkin RH , O'Connor AB , Backonja M , Farrar JT , Finnerup NB , Jensen TS , et al.   Pharmacologic management of neuropathic pain: Evidence-based recommendations . Pain . 2007;132:237–251
  30. Edgar RE , Best LG , Quail PA , Obert AD . Computer-assisted DREZ microcoagulation: posttraumatic spinal deafferentation pain . J Spinal Disord . 1993;6:48–56
  31. Eide PK , Stubhaug A , Stenehjem AE . Central dysesthesia pain after traumatic spinal cord injury is dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation . Neurosurgery . 1995;37:1080–1087
  32. Falci S , Best L , Bayles R , Lammertse D , Starnes C . Dorsal root entry zone microcoagulation for spinal cord injury-related central pain: operative intramedullary electrophysiological guidance and clinical outcome . J Neurosurg . 2002;97:193–200
  33. Finnerup NB , Jensen TS . Spinal cord injury pain mechanisms and treatment . Eur J Neurol . 2004;11:73–82
  34. Finnerup NB , Sindrup SH , Bach FW , Johannesen IL , Jensen TS . Lamotrigine in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial . Pain . 2002;96:375–383
  35. Finnerup NB , Johannesen IL , Bach FW , Jensen TS . Sensory function above lesion level in spinal cord injury patients with and without pain . Somatosens Mot Res . 2003;20:71–76
  36. Finnerup NB , Johannesen IL , Fuglsang-Frederiksen A , Bach FW , Jensen TS . Sensory function in spinal cord injury patients with and without central pain . Brain . 2003;126:57–70
  37. Finnerup NB , Gyldensted C , Nielsen E , Kristensen AD , Bach FW , Jensen TS . MRI in chronic spinal cord injury patients with and without central pain . Neurology . 2004;61:1569–1575
  38. Finnerup NB , Gyldensted C , Fuglsang-Frederiksen A , Bach FW , Jensen TS . Sensory perception in complete spinal cord injury . Acta Neurol Scand . 2004;109:194–199
  39. Finnerup NB , Otto M , McQuay HJ , Jensen TS , Sindrup SH . Algorithm for neuropathic pain treatment: an evidence based proposal . Pain . 2005;118:289–305
  40. Finnerup NB , Biering-Sorensen F , Johannesen IL , Terkelsen AJ , Juhl GI , Kristensen AD , et al.   Intravenous lidocaine relieves spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial . Anesthesiology . 2005;102:1023–1030
  41. Finnerup NB , Pedersen LH , Terkelsen AJ , Johannesen IL , Jensen TS . Reaction to topical capsaicin in spinal cord injury patients with and without central pain . Exp Neurol . 2007;205:190–200
  42. Finnerup NB , Sorensen L , Biering-Sorensen F , Johannesen IL , Jensen TS . Segmental hypersensitivity and spinothalamic function in spinal cord injury pain . Exp Neurol . 2007;207:139–149
  43. Fregni F , Boggio PS , Lima MC , Ferreira MJ , Wagner T , Rigonatti SP , et al.   A sham-controlled, phase II trial of transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of central pain in traumatic spinal cord injury . Pain . 2006;122:197–209
  44. Ghorpade A , Advokat C . Evidence of a role for N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the facilitation of tail withdrawal after spinal transection . Pharmacol Biochem Behav . 1994;48:175–181
  45. Gustin SM , Wrigley PJ , Gandevia SC , Middleton JW , Henderson LA , Siddall PJ . Movement imagery increases pain in people with neuropathic pain following complete thoracic spinal cord injury . Pain . 2008;137:237–244
  46. Gwak YS , Hulsebosch CE . Remote Astrocytic and Microglial Activation Modulate Neuronal Hyperexcitability and Below-Level Neuropathic Pain after Spinal Injury in Rat . Neuroscience . 2009; Epub.
  47. Hains BC , Waxman SG . Activated microglia contribute to the maintenance of chronic pain after spinal cord injury . J Neurosci . 2006;26:4308–4317
  48. Hains BC , Everhart AW , Fullwood SD , Hulsebosch CE . Changes in Serotonin, Serotonin Transporter Expression and Serotonin Denervation Supersensitivity: Involvement in Chronic Central Pain after Spinal Hemisection in the Rat . Exp Neurol . 2002;175:347–362
  49. Hains BC , Klein JP , Saab CY , Craner MJ , Black JA , Waxman SG . Upregulation of sodium channel Nav1.3 and functional involvement in neuronal hyperexcitability associated with central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury . J Neurosci . 2003;23:8881–8892
  50. Hains BC , Saab CY , Waxman SG . Alterations in burst firing of thalamic VPL neurons and reversal by Na(v)1.3 antisense after spinal cord injury . J Neurophysiol . 2006;95:3343–3352
  51. Hansson PT , Dickenson AH . Pharmacological treatment of peripheral neuropathic pain conditions based on shared commonalities despite multiple etiologies . Pain . 2005;113:251–254
  52. Hansson P , Kinnman E . Unmasking of neuropathic pain mechanisms in a clinical perspective . Pain Reviews . 1996;3:272–292
  53. Hao JX , Xu XJ , Aldskogius H , Seiger A , Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z . Allodynia-like effects in rat after ischaemic spinal cord injury photochemically induced by laser irradiation . Pain . 1991;45:175–185
  54. Hao JX , Kupers RC , Xu XJ . Response characteristics of spinal cord dorsal horn neurons in chronic allodynic rats after spinal cord injury . J Neurophysiol . 2004;92:1391–1399
  55. Hari AR , Wydenkeller S , Dokladal P , Halder P . Enhanced recovery of human spinothalamic function is associated with central neuropathic pain after SCI . Exp Neurol . 2009;216:428–430
  56. Hazouri LA , Mueller AD . Pain threshold studies on paraplegic patients . Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry . 1950;64:607–613
  57. Hoheisel U , Scheifer C , Trudrung P , Unger T , Mense S . Pathophysiological activity in rat dorsal horn neurones in segments rostral to a chronic spinal cord injury . Brain Res . 2003;974:134–145
  58. Hubscher CH , Johnson RD . Changes in neuronal receptive field characteristics in caudal brain stem following chronic spinal cord injury . J Neurotrauma . 1999;16:533–541
  59. Hubscher CH , Kaddumi EG , Johnson RD . Segmental neuropathic pain does not develop in male rats with complete spinal transections . J Neurotrauma . 2008;25:1241–1245
  60. Hulsebosch CE , Hains BC , Crown ED , Carlton SM . Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury . Brain Res Rev . 2008; Epub.
  61. Jensen TS , Baron R . Translation of symptoms and signs into mechanisms in neuropathic pain . Pain . 2003;102:1–8
  62. Jensen MP , Hoffman AJ , Cardenas DD . Chronic pain in individuals with spinal cord injury: a survey and longitudinal study . Spinal Cord . 2005;43:704–712
  63. Jensen MP , Barber J , Hanley MA , Engel JM , Romano JM , Cardenas DD , et al.   Long-term outcome of hypnotic-analgesia treatment for chronic pain in persons with disabilities . Int J Clin Exp Hypn . 2008;56:156–169
  64. Kalous A , Osborne PB , Keast JR . Acute and chronic changes in dorsal horn innervation by primary afferents and descending supraspinal pathways after spinal cord injury . J Comp Neurol . 2007;504:238–253
  65. Kalous A , Osborne PB , Keast JR . Spinal cord compression injury in adult rats initiates changes in dorsal horn remodeling that may correlate with development of neuropathic pain . J Comp Neurol . 2009;513:668–684
  66. Kennedy P , Lude P , Taylor N . Quality of life, social participation, appraisals and coping post spinal cord injury: a review of four community samples . Spinal Cord . 2006;44:95–105
  67. Knabl J , Witschi R , Hosl K , Reinold H , Zeilhofer UB , Ahmadi S , et al.   Reversal of pathological pain through specific spinal GABAA receptor subtypes . Nature . 2008;451:330–334
  68. Kvarnstrom A , Karlsten R , Quiding H , Gordh T . The analgesic effect of intravenous ketamine and lidocaine on pain after spinal cord injury . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand . 2004;48:498–506
  69. Lenz FA , Tasker RR , Dostrovsky JO , Kwan HC , Gorecki J , Hirayama T , et al.   Abnormal single-unit activity recorded in the somatosensory thalamus of a quadriplegic patient with central pain . Pain . 1987;31:225–236
  70. Lenz FA , Kwan HC , Martin R , Tasker R , Richardson RT , Dostrovsky JO . Characteristics of somatotopic organization and spontaneous neuronal activity in the region of the thalamic principal sensory nucleus in patients with spinal cord transection . J Neurophysiol . 1994;72:1570–1587
  71. Levendoglu F , Ogun CO , Ozerbil O , Ogun TC , Ugurlu H . Gabapentin is a first line drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury . Spine . 2004;29:743–751
  72. Loubser PG , Donovan WH . Diagnostic spinal anaesthesia in chronic spinal cord injury pain . Paraplegia . 1991;29:25–36
  73. Marchand F , Tsantoulas C , Singh D , Grist J , Clark AK , Bradbury EJ , et al.   Effects of Etanercept and Minocycline in a rat model of spinal cord injury . Eur J Pain . 2008;
  74. Marcinkiewcz CA , Green MK , Devine DP , Duarte P , Vierck CJ , Yezierski RP . Social defeat stress potentiates thermal sensitivity in operant models of pain processing . Brain Res . 2009;1251:112–120
  75. Marino RJ , Barros T , Biering-Sorensen F , Burns SP , Donovan WH , Graves DE , et al.   International standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury . J Spinal Cord Med . 2003;26(Suppl 1):S50–S56
  76. McAdoo DJ , Xu GY , Robak G , Hughes MG . Changes in amino acid concentrations over time and space around an impact injury and their diffusion through the rat spinal cord . Exp Neurol . 1999;159:538–544
  77. Melzack R , Loeser JD . Phantom body pain in paraplegics: evidence for a central “pattern generating mechanism” for pain . Pain . 1978;4:195–210
  78. Merskey H , Bogduk N . Classification of chronic pain: descriptions of chronic pain syndromes and definitions of pain terms . Seattle: IASP Press; 1994;
  79. Mills CD , Fullwood SD , Hulsebosch CE . Changes in metabotropic glutamate receptor expression following spinal cord injury . Exp Neurol . 2001;170:244–257
  80. Moseley GL . Using visual illusion to reduce at-level neuropathic pain in paraplegia . Pain . 2007;130:294–298
  81. Murphy D , Reid DB . Pain treatment satisfaction in spinal cord injury . Spinal Cord . 2001;39:44–46
  82. Norrbrink BC , Lundeberg T . Use of analgesic drugs in individuals with spinal cord injury . J Rehabil Med . 2005;37:87–94
  83. Norrbrink C , Lundeberg T . Tramadol in neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial . Clin J Pain . 2009;25:177–184
  84. Norrbrink BC , Kowalski J , Lundeberg T . A comprehensive pain management programme comprising educational, cognitive and behavioural interventions for neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury . J Rehabil Med . 2006;38:172–180
  85. Oatway MA , Chen Y , Weaver LC . The 5-HT(3) receptor facilitates at-level mechanical allodynia following spinal cord injury . Pain . 2004;110:259–268
  86. Pattany PM , Yezierski RP , Widerstrom-Noga EG , Bowen BC , Martinez-Arizala A , Garcia BR , et al.   Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the Thalamus in Patients with Chronic Neuropathic Pain after Spinal Cord Injury . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 2002;23:901–905
  87. Plunkett JA , Yu CG , Easton JM , Bethea JR , Yezierski RP . Effects of interleukin-10 (IL-10) on pain behavior and gene expression following excitotoxic spinal cord injury in the rat . Exp Neurol . 2001;168:144–154
  88. Putzke JD , Richards JS , Hicken BL , DeVivo MJ . Interference due to pain following spinal cord injury: important predictors and impact on quality of life . Pain . 2002;100:231–242
  89. Rintala DH , Holmes SA , Courtade D , Fiess RN , Tastard LV , Loubser PG . Comparison of the effectiveness of amitriptyline and gabapentin on chronic neuropathic pain in persons with spinal cord injury . Arch Phys Med Rehabil . 2007;88:1547–1560
  90. Roeska K , Doods H , Arndt K , Treede RD , Ceci A . Anxiety-like behaviour in rats with mononeuropathy is reduced by the analgesic drugs morphine and gabapentin . Pain . 2008;139:349–357
  91. Scheifer C , Hoheisel U , Trudrung P , Unger T , Mense S . Rats with chronic spinal cord transection as a possible model for the at-level pain of paraplegic patients . Neurosci Lett . 2002;323:117–120
  92. Schouenborg J , Holmberg H , Weng HR . Functional organization of the nociceptive withdrawal reflexes. II. Changes of excitability and receptive fields after spinalization in the rat . Exp Brain Res . 1992;90:469–478
  93. Schroeder CI , Doering CJ , Zamponi GW , Lewis RJ . N-type calcium channel blockers: novel therapeutics for the treatment of pain . Med Chem . 2006;2:535–543
  94. Siddall P , Xu CL , Cousins M . Allodynia following traumatic spinal cord injury in the rat . Neuroreport . 1995;6:1241–1244
  95. Siddall PJ , Taylor DA , Cousins MJ . Classification of pain following spinal cord injury . Spinal Cord . 1997;35:69–75
  96. Siddall PJ , Molloy AR , Walker S , Rutkowski SB . The efficacy of intrathecal morphine and clonidine in the treatment of pain after spinal cord injury . Anesth Analg . 2000;91:1–6
  97. Siddall PJ , McClelland JM , Rutkowski SB , Cousins MJ . A longitudinal study of the prevalence and characteristics of pain in the first 5 years following spinal cord injury . Pain . 2003;103:249–257
  98. Siddall PJ , Cousins MJ , Otte A , Griesing T , Chambers R , Murphy TK . Pregabalin in central neuropathic pain associated with spinal cord injury: a placebo-controlled trial . Neurology . 2006;67:1792–1800
  99. Smeal WL , Yezierski RP , Wrigley PJ , Siddall PJ , Jensen MP , Ehde DM . Spinal cord injury . J Pain . 2006;7:871–877
  100. Suzuki R , Rygh LJ , Dickenson AH . Bad news from the brain: descending 5-HT pathways that control spinal pain processing . Trends Pharmacol Sci . 2004;25:613–617
  101. Tai Q , Kirshblum S , Chen B , Millis S , Johnston M , Delisa JA . Gabapentin in the treatment of neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial . J Spinal Cord Med . 2002;25:100–105
  102. Tasker RR , Gorecki J , Lenz FA , Hirayama T , Dostrovsky JO . Thalamic microelectrode recording and microstimulation in central and deafferentation pain . Appl Neurophysiol . 1987;50:414–417
  103. Treede RD , Jensen TS , Campbell JN , Cruccu G , Dostrovsky JO , Griffin JW , et al.   Neuropathic pain: Redefinition and a grading system for clinical and research purposes . Neurology . 2008;70:1630–1635
  104. Vierck CJ . Animal models of pain . In:  McMahon SB ,  Koltzenburg M editor. Wall and Melzack's textbook of pain . London: Elsevier; 2006;p. 175–185
  105. Vierck CJ , Light AR . Allodynia and hyperalgesia within dermatomes caudal to a spinal cord injury in primates and rodents . Prog Brain Res . 2000;129:411–428
  106. Vierck CJ , Cannon RL , Stevens KA , Acosta-Rua AJ , Wirth ED . Mechanisms of increased pain sensitivity within dermatomes remote from an injured segment of the spinal cord . In:  Yezierski RP ,  Burchiel KJ editor. Spinal Cord Injury Pain: Assessment, Mechanisms, Management. Progress in Pain Research and Management . Seattle: IASP Press; 2002;p. 155–173
  107. Vierck CJ , Hansson PT , Yezierski RP . Clinical and pre-clinical pain assessment: are we measuring the same thing? . Pain . 2008;135:7–10
  108. Vranken JH , Dijkgraaf MG , Kruis RM , van der Vegt MH , Hollmann MW , Heesen M . Pregabalin in patients with central neuropathic pain: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a flexible-dose regimen . Pain . 2007;136:150–157
  109. Wang G , Thompson SM . Maladaptive homeostatic plasticity in a rodent model of central pain syndrome: thalamic hyperexcitability after spinothalamic tract lesions . J Neurosci . 2008;28:11959–11969
  110. Wasner G , Lee BB , Engel S , Mclachlan E . Residual spinothalamic tract pathways predict development of central pain after spinal cord injury . Brain . 2008;131:2387–2400
  111. Werhagen L , Budh CN , Hultling C , Molander C . Neuropathic pain after traumatic spinal cord injury - relations to gender, spinal level, completeness, and age at the time of injury . Spinal Cord . 2004;42:665–673
  112. Westgren N , Levi R . Quality of life and traumatic spinal cord injury . Arch Phys Med Rehabil . 1998;79:1433–1439
  113. Widerstrom-Noga EG , Turk DC . Types and effectiveness of treatments used by people with chronic pain associated with spinal cord injuries: influence of pain and psychosocial characteristics . Spinal Cord . 2003;41:600–609
  114. Widerstrom-Noga EG , Felipe-Cuervo E , Yezierski RP . Chronic pain after spinal injury: Interference with sleep and daily activities . Arch Phys Med Rehabil . 2001;82:1571–1577
  115. Widerstrom-Noga E , Biering-Sorensen F , Bryce T , Cardenas DD , Finnerup NB , Jensen MP , et al.   The International Spinal Cord Injury Pain Basic Data Set . Spinal Cord . 2008;46:818–823
  116. Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z , Aldskogius H , Grant G , Hao JX , Hokfelt T , Xu XJ . Central inhibitory dysfunctions: mechanisms and clinical implications . Behav Brain Sci . 1997;20:420–425
  117. Willis WD . Central neurogenic pain: possible mechanisms . Adv Pain Res Ther . 1991;19:81–102
  118. Winkelstein BA , Rutkowski MD , Sweitzer SM , Pahl JL , DeLeo JA . Nerve injury proximal or distal to the DRG induces similar spinal glial activation and selective cytokine expression but differential behavioral responses to pharmacologic treatment . J Comp Neurol . 2001;439:127–139
  119. Woolf CJ , Bennett GJ , Doherty M , Dubner R , Kidd B , Koltzenburg M , et al.   Towards a mechanism-based classification of pain? . Pain . 1998;77:227–229
  120. Wrigley PJ , Press SR , Gustin SM , Macefield VG , Gandevia SC , Cousins MJ , et al.   Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury . Pain . 2009;141:52–59
  121. Yezierski RP , Park SH . The mechanosensitivity of spinal sensory neurons following intraspinal injections of quisqualic acid in the rat . Neurosci Lett . 1993;157:115–119
  122. Yezierski RP , Liu S , Ruenes GL , Kajander KJ , Brewer KL . Excitotoxic spinal cord injury: behavioral and morphological characteristics of a central pain model . Pain . 1998;75:141–155
  123. Yu CG , Fairbanks CA , Wilcox GL , Yezierski RP . Effects of agmatine, interleukin-10, and cyclosporin on spontaneous pain behavior after excitotoxic spinal cord injury in rats . J Pain . 2003;4:129–140
  124. Zhang AL , Hao JX , Seiger A , Xu XJ , Wiesenfeld HZ , Grant G , et al.   Decreased GABA immunoreactivity in spinal cord dorsal horn neurons after transient spinal cord ischemia in the rat . Brain Res . 1994;656:187–190
  125. Zhang H , Xie W , Xie Y . Spinal cord injury triggers sensitization of wide dynamic range dorsal horn neurons in segments rostral to the injury . Brain Res . 2005;1055:103–110
  126. Zhao P , Waxman SG , Hains BC . Modulation of thalamic nociceptive processing after spinal cord injury through remote activation of thalamic microglia by cysteine cysteine chemokine ligand 21 . J Neurosci . 2007;27:8893–8902

PII: S1877-8860(09)70003-5

doi: 10.1016/S1877-8860(09)70003-5

Scandinavian Journal of Pain
Volume 1 , Pages S3-S11 , May 2009

Article Tools